Chapter: A local ordinance dictates that properties in a specific area can only be used for residential purposes. This is an example of which type of land use control? (EN)

Chapter: Exclusive Residential Zoning

Defining Land Use Control

Land use control encompasses a spectrum of public and private regulatory mechanisms designed to manage the development and utilization of land. These controls aim to achieve various societal goals, including environmental protection, economic development, public health and safety, and community aesthetics. They operate on scales ranging from individual properties to entire regions.

Types of Land Use Controls

Land use controls can be broadly categorized into several types, each employing different strategies to influence land use patterns:

• Zoning: A fundamental form of land use control that divides a municipality into districts or zones, each with specific regulations governing permissible uses, building heights, lot sizes, and other developmental standards. Zoning ordinances are typically enacted at the local level and enforced through permits and inspections.
• Subdivision Regulations: Controls the division of land into smaller parcels for development. These regulations ensure adequate infrastructure (roads, utilities), protect environmentally sensitive areas, and promote orderly growth.
• Building Codes: Set minimum standards for the construction and maintenance of buildings to ensure structural integrity, fire safety, accessibility, and energy efficiency.
• Environmental Regulations: Protect natural resources and mitigate the environmental impacts of development, including regulations pertaining to wetlands, endangered species, air and water quality, and hazardous waste.
• Eminent Domain: The power of the government to take private property for public use, even if the owner is unwilling to sell, provided that just compensation is paid.
• Private Land Use Controls (Restrictive Covenants): Legally binding agreements attached to property deeds that restrict the use of land. These covenants are typically established by developers or homeowner associations and can address issues such as architectural styles, landscaping, and pet restrictions.
• Comprehensive Plans: Long-range plans that outline a community’s vision for future development and guide land use decisions.
• Growth Management Techniques: Strategies employed to manage the rate and pattern of development, often involving urban growth boundaries, adequate public facilities ordinances, and transferable development rights.

Exclusive Residential Zoning: A Deeper Dive

Exclusive residential zoning, also known as single-family zoning, is a specific type of zoning that restricts land use in a designated area solely to residential dwellings. In its purest form, it prohibits all non-residential uses, including commercial businesses, industrial activities, and even some types of community facilities.

Justifications for Exclusive Residential Zoning

Proponents of exclusive residential zoning often cite the following reasons for its implementation:

• Protecting Residential Quality of Life: Preventing non-residential uses from encroaching on residential areas is argued to preserve peace and quiet, reduce traffic congestion, and maintain property values.
• Promoting Family-Friendly Environments: The absence of commercial and industrial activities is believed to create safer and more desirable environments for families with children.
• Preserving Neighborhood Character: Exclusive residential zoning is often used to maintain the distinct character of established neighborhoods and prevent incompatible uses from altering their ambiance.

Criticisms of Exclusive Residential Zoning

Exclusive residential zoning has faced growing criticism in recent years, with detractors arguing that it contributes to:

• Housing Affordability Crisis: By restricting the supply of land available for multi-family housing and other affordable housing options, exclusive residential zoning is seen as a major driver of rising housing costs. This can be modeled, simply, by considering a fixed demand (D) for housing. Limiting supply (S) via zoning (Z) increases price (P) relative to a scenario without such zoning.

  P(Z) > P(no Z) given D = constant and S(Z) < S(no Z)

• Social and Economic Segregation: Exclusive residential zoning can perpetuate segregation by income and race by limiting access to desirable neighborhoods to those who can afford single-family homes.

• Urban Sprawl and Environmental Degradation: By forcing denser development into areas further from existing employment centers and amenities, exclusive residential zoning can contribute to increased automobile dependence, longer commutes, and environmental damage.
• Inefficient Land Use: Restricting land to single-family homes is argued to be an inefficient use of land resources, especially in densely populated areas.

Scientific Research and Practical Applications

Several studies have examined the impacts of exclusive residential zoning on housing affordability, segregation, and urban sprawl. These studies often employ econometric models and spatial analysis techniques to quantify the effects of zoning regulations on various outcomes.

Example of Econometric Analysis:

Researchers may use regression analysis to estimate the relationship between zoning regulations and housing prices, controlling for other factors such as location, amenities, and housing characteristics. A simplified model might look like this:

Housing Price = β₀ + β₁Zoning Intensity + β₂Location + β₃Amenities + ε

Where:

• Housing Price: The price of a house
• Zoning Intensity: A measure of the restrictiveness of zoning regulations (e.g., minimum lot size, maximum building height)
• Location: A vector of variables capturing the locational attributes of the property (e.g., proximity to schools, parks, employment centers)
• Amenities: A vector of variables capturing the amenities of the property (e.g., number of bedrooms, square footage, presence of a garage)
• ε: The error term
• β₀, β₁, β₂, β₃: Coefficients to be estimated. A positive and statistically significant β₁ would indicate that more restrictive zoning regulations are associated with higher housing prices.

Practical Applications:

Cities and municipalities are increasingly experimenting with alternative zoning approaches to address the negative consequences of exclusive residential zoning. These include:

• Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs): Allowing homeowners to build small, independent living units on their properties (e.g., garage apartments, backyard cottages) to increase housing density and affordability.
• Inclusionary Zoning: Requiring developers to include a certain percentage of affordable housing units in new residential developments.
• Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Focusing development around public transportation hubs to reduce automobile dependence and promote mixed-use communities.
• Form-Based Zoning: Emphasizing the physical form and character of development rather than strict land use classifications, allowing for greater flexibility and creativity in building design.

Key Discoveries and Breakthroughs

The debate surrounding exclusive residential zoning has led to several important discoveries and breakthroughs in urban planning and housing policy. These include:

• Recognition of the Unintended Consequences of Zoning: Research has highlighted the ways in which zoning regulations, intended to promote public welfare, can inadvertently contribute to housing affordability problems, segregation, and urban sprawl.
• Development of New Zoning Techniques: Experimentation with alternative zoning approaches has led to the development of innovative tools for promoting mixed-use development, affordable housing, and sustainable urban growth.
• Increased Awareness of the Social Equity Implications of Land Use Policy: The debate over exclusive residential zoning has raised awareness of the ways in which land use policies can exacerbate social and economic inequalities.

Conclusion

Exclusive residential zoning represents a specific and common form of land use control. It dictates that only residential activities may occur within designated geographic boundaries. While it offers perceived benefits in terms of residential quality of life, neighborhood character, and family-friendly environments, its drawbacks including contributing to housing affordability issues, socioeconomic segregation, and inefficient land use have led to critical evaluation and alternative planning strategies. Understanding the scientific basis and practical implications of exclusive residential zoning is crucial for informed decision-making in urban planning and housing policy. The correct answer to the question “A local ordinance dictates that properties in a specific area can only be used for residential purposes. This is an example of which type of land use control?” is Exclusive Residential Zoning.