Valuation Approaches: Sales Comparison, Cost, and Income

4. list the four basic activity zones of a house and describe their relationships to each other;
5. describe the characteristics that affect functional utility in the various rooms of a house,
6. identify the characteristics of various building components that can affect value❓, and
7. understand the technical terminology used to describe residential construction.
   I. Classification of Houses
   Houses are generally classified on the basis of four characteristics: the number of units, whether the building is attached or detached, the number of stories and the architectural style.
   The NUMBER OF UNITS refers to the number of separate households that the building is designed to accommodate. Although usage may vary in different areas, the term “house” is most often used to refer to a SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCE. If a building has multiple units that share a common access and other common areas, it is usually referred to as an APARTMENT BUILDING.
   A DETACHED HOUSE is one that is not connected to any other property❓. ATTACHED HOUSES share one or more walls, called “party walls,” that are jointly owned by the two adjoining properties. ROW HOUSES, common in many urban areas, are an example of attached dwellings. Ownership of an attached dwelling often involves a PARTY WALL AGREEMENT, which assigns responsibility for maintenance and repair of the party wall(s) (see Figure 7-1).
   A. TYPES OF HOUSES
   The “type of house” refers to the number of stories or levels in the house, and their relationship to each other.
   Although modern construction methods allow for all sorts of variations, the vast majority of houses fall into five basic “type” categories (see Figure 7-2):
8. one-story,
9. one and one-half story,
10. two-story,
11. split-level, and
12. bi-level (also known as split-entry or raised ranch).

One-Story House
A ONE-STORY HOUSE, often called a “ranch” or “rambler,” has its entire living area on the ground floor. It may or may not have a BASEMENT, which is a room of full story height located below the first floor, at least partially below ground level, and primarily not used for living accommodations.
The advantages of one-story houses include: ease of exterior maintenance, flexibility of floor plan design and the fact that there are no stairs to climb.
On the down side, this type of house is relatively expensive to build; by comparison, a two-story house with the same exterior dimensions has twice the living area, with essentially no extra cost❓ for roof or foundation. (Roof costs for a one-story house are often minimized by using a low pitched roofline.)
One-story houses also require a greater amount of lot space in relation to the amount of living area, so they may be inappropriate or impractical on small or narrow lots.

One and One-Half Story House
Also known as a Cape Cod, the ONE AND ONE-HALF STORY HOUSE has a steeply pitched roof that permits part of the attic area to be used for living space. Roof dormers, which add to the amount of usable upstairs space, are a common feature of this type of house. As in the case of one-story houses, the foundation may or may not include a basement. Construction costs per square foot tend to be lower for one and one-half story houses than for one-story houses.
One and one-half story houses are often built with expandability in mind. Because the ground floor normally has at least one bedroom (and sometimes two), the upstairs level can be left unfinished until the extra space is needed. However, ease of expandability will depend on the quality of the original design and construction, which should allow for adequate access (stairs), ventilation (windows) and plumbing (bathrooms) on the attic level.

Two-Story House
Compared to a one-story or one and one-half story house, the two-story house is more economical in terms of construction cost per square foot of living space.
The reason for the economy is that square footage can be doubled without doubling foundation and roof system costs. This design also allows for the most living space on a given size of lot. Bedrooms are normally located on the upper floor, providing a natural separation between the public and private areas of the house.
A concern with all multi-level houses is the design and efficiency of heating and cooling systems. Because heat rises, a poorly designed system will make it difficult to keep the lower level warm in winter, and the upstairs cool in the summer.
With a well designed system, however, heating and cooling efficiency may actually be greater than for single-story houses, since the building has less exterior surface area relative to the amount of heated or cooled interior space.

Split-Level House
A SPLIT-LEVEL HOUSE has three or four different levels, which are staggered so that each level is separated from the next by half of a flight of stairs. Bedrooms and baths are located on the top level. Half a flight down are the main entry, living room, dining room and kitchen. Down another half-story, beneath the bedroom level, is space for a family room, den or spare bedroom; the garage is often located on this level as well. A fourth level, equivalent to a basement, may be located below the living/dining/kitchen space.
The design of a split-level home lends itself to a sloped lot, where the garage and main entry can both open out at grade level. On a flat site, the main entry will be raised one- half story above the finished grade.
A split-level house has some of the same benefits as a two-story house in terms of construction, cost efficiency and natural separation of the various functional areas of the home.

Bi-Level House
A BI-LEVEL or SPLIT-ENTRY HOUSE has two main levels, one atop the other, with an entry or foyer located on a level halfway between. The lower level is sunk about halfway below ground, so the entry is even with the grade level. This design is sometimes called a “raised ranch,” since it is essentially a one-story home with a finished basement that has been raised partially out of the ground. The main rooms of the house are all on the upper level, with the lower story used for a family room or rec room, and perhaps a spare bedroom.
Since the lower level of a split-entry house is partly below ground, special care must be taken to provide adequate insulation and moisture proofing. Another drawback to this design is the lack of a basement or crawlspace in which to run pipes and ductwork.
Nevertheless, split-entry homes are cost-effective to build, and the finished lower level space is considered part of the “gross living area” for appraisal purposes in many parts of the country.
II. Architectural Styles
ARCHITECTURAL STYLE is the character of a building’s form and ornamentation.
If homebuyers in a particular area do not find a particular architectural style desirable, homes of that style are likely to sell for less than similar size homes having architectural styles which are more desirable within that community.
Architectural styles have traditionally been influenced by local factors such as climate and the availability of different building materials.
There are many examples of traditional architectural styles that are adapted to a particular location: Spanish style houses with thick adobe walls and tile roofs in the southwest desert, Southern Colonial houses with deep shaded porches in the hot, humid South, or Cape Cod style homes designed for protection from cold northern winds in New England (see Figure 7-3).
Local traditional styles can still be found in many areas, but location is much less of an influence on architectural style than it used to be.
Builders are no longer limited to using local materials, since modern transportation systems make different building materials widely available at reasonable costs. The invention of central heating and cooling, as well as improved insulating materials, has broadened the range of architectural styles that can be adapted to local climates.

compatibility❓
COMPATIBILITY means that a building is in harmony with its use or uses and its environment. In terms of value, one type or style of house is not inherently better or worse than any other. What is most important to value is the compatibility of the design. Compatibility has several different aspects. To maximize value, the design of a house should be compatible with the designs of other homes in the area, with the physical and environmental characteristics of the building site, with the materials used in the construction, and with the preferences of the local market.
First of all, the design of a house should be compatible with the styles of other houses in the local neighborhood.
The market may welcome a limited degree of uniqueness in design, but value will generally suffer if the design contrasts too radically with surrounding houses.
Subdivision developers often impose design restrictions on their developments, because they know that compatibility of design will have a positive impact on property values in the subdivision.

Compatibility of design also refers to the suitability of the design for the particular building lot and location. Value is enhanced by a design that takes advantage of physical site characteristics, such as views. The design should also be appropriate for the topography of the site. For example, split-level designs often work well on hilly sites, while colonial style houses do not. Finally, the design should be appropriate for the local climate. A design that is specifically adapted to a hot desert climate, for example, would be inappropriate in an area with cool, rainy weather.

A building’s architectural style is often defined at least in part by the materials used in its construction. Spanish style homes have clay tile roofs, Tudor’s utilize timber framing, contemporary designs incorporate large areas of glass. A compatible design is one where the materials are appropriate to the style.

The final aspect of design compatibility is perhaps the most important: the design must be compatible with the demands of the market.

The popularity of any given design is influenced by the economic and social forces that affect value. As lifestyles and demographics change, so does the demand for different design features in housing.

Ultimately, it is the local market that determines what is a “good” design, and what is a “bad” one.
III. Elements of House Design
An appraiser must be able to identify the various elements of house design and evaluate any defects in those elements. The elements of house design include siting, interior functional zones, and room characteristics.
He or she may use mobile apps to reproduce accurate renderings to use for comparison purposes.

Siting
SITING refers to the placement of the house on the building lot. Placement is normally limited to some extent by building code set-back requirements, which call for minimum distances between the house and the property’s boundaries. Topographic considerations such as slopes or poor soil conditions may also limit where the house may be placed on the lot. Within these limits, however, careful placement of the house on the lot can have a significant impact on value.
There are four basic considerations in designing the placement of a house on its lot: orientation to the sun, orientation to prevailing storm winds, orientation to views, and the division of the lot into functional zones (see Figure 7-4).
Appraisers can create figures like the one above by using appropriate mobile apps.

Orientation to the sun affects the amount of light and heat that can enter the house. In most areas, a design where the living areas of the house face south is considered optimum. This orientation takes best advantage of natural lighting in the most used areas of the home, and helps maximize solar heat gain in the winter. Excessive summer heat gain can be avoided by using wide roof overhangs, which shade the house in summer when the sun is high in the sky, but allow light and heat to penetrate in the winter when the sun’s path is lower.

Screening with deciduous trees is another effective way to block the summer sun but still allow it to shine through in the winter when the trees are bare.

In some areas, orientation to prevailing storm winds is an important siting consideration. In areas that are subject to frequent or heavy storms from a particular direction, it is best to minimize the amount of window area that is directly exposed to the winds, in order to cut down on heat loss. Entries should also be sheltered from the direct path of the storms.

An attractive view can add significantly to the value of a house. Views should be visible from the most used areas of the house. Even if the site does not have an attractive territorial view, careful landscaping can provide a pleasant view of the lot from the living area.

The last aspect of house siting is the division of the lot into functional areas or zones, the so-called public, private, and service❓ zones. The area that can be viewed from the street frontage is the public zone. Areas shielded from the street by the house, or by fencing or other landscaping, constitute the private area. The service area includes access ways (driveway, walkways, etc.) and outdoor storage areas. Good design maximizes the amount of private area available for household activities.

Interior Functional Zone
An appraiser cannot underestimate the importance of FUNCTIONAL UTILITY, which concerns a building’s ability to perform the function for which it is intended according to current market tastes and standards; as well as the efficiency of use in terms of architectural style, design and layout, traffic patterns, and the size and type of rooms.
A well-designed house should provide space for three basic activities: living, working, and sleeping.
Ideally, the spaces provided for each of these activities should be separated, so that one activity does not interfere with another. For example, bedrooms should be located where they will not be disturbed by activities in the living and working areas of the house.

A house’s value is affected by the building’s FLOOR PLAN, which is an architectural drawing indicating the exact layout of rooms and illustrating the functional or nonfunctional relationship between them. Structures with wasted space might lack space where it is otherwise desired so that the property will be less desirable to buyers than similar size homes.

Case/Example: In a retirement oriented community, a two-story home without a bedroom on the first level is likely to be far less desirable than one with this feature.

Room Characteristics
Kitchens
The kitchen is commonly the most used room of the house, so its design and location have a large impact on the functionality of the overall floor plan.

Kitchens should be conveniently accessible from both the main entrance and service entrance of the house, and should be located adjacent to the dining room and family room, if these rooms are included in the design. Also, the kitchen should be designed so that it is not necessary to walk through the working area in order to reach other rooms of the house.

A critical aspect of kitchen design is the work triangle, which is formed by the sink, refrigerator, and range. The distances between the three points of the work triangle can make the difference between an efficient kitchen design and a poor one. If the distances are too small, the kitchen will be cramped; if they are too great, preparing a meal will seem like a five-mile hike. A distance of four to seven feet between each point of the work triangle is considered optimal (see Figure 7-6).

Kitchen sizes vary considerably. Eighty square feet of space (8’ x 10’) is considered a minimum, but kitchens twice that size are not uncommon. Larger kitchens often include an eating area or family activity area. The design should include adequate counter and cabinet space, and plenty of electrical outlets for kitchen appliances.

Lighting and ventilation are important considerations in kitchen design. Overhead lights should illuminate all areas of the kitchen, and a vent or fan should be located over the cooking area to allow cooking fumes to escape. Natural lighting is desirable, but the placement of windows can be a problem. The best location for a kitchen window is over the sink. Additional windows are desirable so long as they do not take up space needed for wall cabinets.
Windows should never be placed over the cooking area.

Laundry/Utility Rooms
Laundry areas are best located where they are convenient to the sleeping area of the house, off the bedroom hallway for example. However, location of the laundry area is not as critical as most other rooms of the house, and laundries are often located in the garage or basement.

The laundry area should be well-ventilated, and located where noise from the appliances will not disturb others.

Living Rooms
The living room is the main public room of the house.

It should be located near the main (guest) entry, be separated from the sleeping area, and preferably be on the south side of the house. If the house has a dining room, it should be next to the living room. It should not be necessary to cross through the living room in order to reach the kitchen or bedrooms.

The size and shape of the living room should allow for easy arrangement of furniture. About 200 square feet is the minimum size, and rectangular shaped rooms tend to work best for furniture placement. The modern trend is for smaller living rooms, particularly in homes with a separate family/recreation room.

Family Rooms
In many areas, the FAMILY ROOM (also called a recreation room) has taken over the role of the living room as the main center of entertainment and socializing in the house. As part of the living zone, the family room should be separated from the sleeping zone; however, it is usually considered an advantage if the family room is next to (or near) the kitchen.

Since the family room is a center of activity for household members, direct access to the outside is also an asset.

Dining Rooms
Dining rooms may be formal or informal. A formal dining room or area is a separate room that is designed for that purpose. Informal dining areas are usually attached to or part of the kitchen itself, and may take the form of a nook or alcove.

The main considerations for the dining area are that it should be large enough to accommodate a dining table and chairs (including room to get in and out of the table), and it should have easy access to the kitchen so that food does not have to be carried through other areas of the house.

Bedrooms
The number of bedrooms has a major effect on house value.

Normally, homes with different numbers of bedrooms appeal to different segments of the market, that is, to families of different sizes or lifestyles. The average household size in the market will have a large impact on the desirability of three- or four-bedroom homes, as opposed to two-bedroom homes.

Ideally, bedrooms should all be located in a separate sleeping zone, to provide both privacy and noise insulation. The most common arrangement is to locate the bedrooms on a separate story or wing. Each bedroom should have convenient access to a bathroom, either directly or via a private hallway. Also, it should not be necessary to go through a bedroom to reach another room (other than a private bath).
Depending on the room layout, a size of 9’ x 10’ is the minimum needed to allow for a single bed, 10’ x 12’ for a double bed. Whether larger room sizes will add to value depends on local market preferences. Most homes have at least one bedroom that is larger than the others, the MASTER BEDROOM. Modern master bedrooms will often have walk-in closets and other amenities.
Each bedroom should have its own closet.
7. Bathrooms
Modern homes have a minimum of two bathrooms, usually a full bath and a half bath. A FULL BATH contains a sink, toilet, and bathtub or shower. A HALF BATH, also known as a powder room, contains only a sink and toilet. Most homes that have three or more bedrooms will have two or three full bathrooms.
One bathroom should be located so that it is conveniently accessible to all bedrooms, and another should be located off the main living area, to serve as a powder room for guests. In addition, most master bedrooms have a private bath, connected directly to the bedroom.
IV. Construction Methods and Materials
A. Foundations
The foundation of a building is the part that rests on the ground, and supports the rest of the structure. The three major parts of a foundation are the footings, the foundation wall, and the floor. The FOOTINGS are usually made of reinforced concrete, and spread the weight of the building over a wide area to prevent settling. The FOUNDATION WALL extends from the footing to the floor level of the building.
1. Types of Foundations
There are four basic types of foundations: basement foundations, crawl space foundations, pier and beam foundations, and slab-on-grade foundations. BASEMENT FOUNDATIONS are typically made of poured concrete or concrete blocks, and extend about 8 feet below ground level.
The basement provides a full additional story of usable space. In cold climates, a basement foundation must extend below the local frost line, to prevent the structure from being damaged by freezing and thawing.

The benefits of a basement foundation include additional living or storage space, and protection from storms. A storm cellar, or fallout shelter, can be easily constructed in a basement.
On the downside, basements can be damp (or even subject to flooding) and subject to pest infestations. Also, a basement foundation is relatively expensive to build, since it requires excavation and construction of foundation walls and footings.
CRAWL SPACE FOUNDATIONS provide an area of only limited height (about 1 to 3 feet) beneath the ground floor of the building. The crawl space area is usually left unfinished, but it can be useful as a location to run pipes and ductwork. Crawl space foundations are also less expensive to construct than basements, requiring less excavation and less costly foundation walls.
PIER AND BEAM FOUNDATIONS are constructed with wood or concrete posts, called piers, that rest on concrete footings in the ground. Horizontal beams are attached to the top of the piers, and the building rests on the beams. Pier and beam foundations provide an open area under the building that can be used as a crawl space. This type of foundation is particularly well-suited to sites with unstable soil conditions.
A SLAB-ON-GRADE FOUNDATION is a reinforced concrete slab that rests directly on the ground. It is also known as a monolithic slab, or floating foundation. Because this type of foundation does not provide any open area under the building, it is used only in areas where the risk of freezing is slight or nonexistent. Slab-on-grade foundations are inexpensive to build, and are often used in combination with radiant heating, where hot water pipes are imbedded in the concrete slab.
It is possible to add living area to a dwelling that is built on a monolithic slab by constructing a stem wall and excavating below the top of the monolithic slab. This process effectively lowers the elevation of the slab to a basement elevation. However, this is not typically done unless the slab is experiencing structural issues, such as sinking, heaving, or cracking.
The slab on grade must be able to drain away from the building if it has no stem wall. Improper drainage and a grade that slopes toward the house can cause water intrusion and structural damage, and will affect the overall desirability and marketability of the house. It is important for appraisers to accurately assess drainage around the perimeter of a building.

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Residential Construction Summary:

This chapter provides a foundational understanding of residential construction, essential for appraisers to accurately assess property value. It covers house classifications based on unit number, attachment, stories, and architectural style, highlighting the five basic house types: one-story, one-and-a-half story, two-story, split-level, and bi-level.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of architectural style and its compatibility with the surrounding environment, construction materials, and local market preferences. It details key elements of house design, including optimal siting for sunlight, wind protection, and views, along with the division of lots into functional zones.

Interior design is also discussed, focusing on functional utility and the efficient separation of living, working, and sleeping zones. Room characteristics, including kitchens (with emphasis on the work triangle), laundry rooms, living rooms, family rooms, dining rooms, bedrooms (including master bedrooms), and bathrooms, are examined for their impact on functionality and desirability.

Finally, the chapter covers construction methods and materials, discussing foundations (basement, crawl space, pier and beam, and slab-on-grade), framing, sheathing, exterior finishes, doors and windows, insulation, ventilation, interior finishes, plumbing, heating, air conditioning, electrical systems and quality factors. This provides the knowledge base to identify construction details, materials, and potential defects crucial to accurate appraisals, relating to the course description by focusing on property value based on construction and design. The summary relates to the COURSE DESCRIPTION by emphasizing the factors that influence property value based on construction and design.